On What a "Conspiracy Theory" is, and Epistemology

[Stephen3141]

I have written quite a bit about the Epistemological model that Christians should have.
(Yes, the Bible DOES lay down a lot of constraints, on the epistemological beliefs
that Christian MAY HAVE, and MAY NOT HAVE.)

This is from the standpoint of how the Bible presents "reality". It is not particularly from
an academic viewpoint. My interest is more in how the Bible's presentation of "reality"
governs core Christian doctrines, and the Christian worldview.

To use copyrighted text, a Christian's view of "reality" is important because...

----- -----
"Key Question:
Why have Logic for Christians? Isn’t the valid process of reasoning the same, for everyone?

As it turns out, formal logic is not only concerned with the process of thinking about our shared reality. It has to be concerned with what our shared reality is. This is the topic of so many of the early Christian apologists (including the Apostle Paul).

(Note that the modern phrase, critical thinking, is seen as a larger subject than the modern concept of logic. Critical thinking is concerned with what modern logic would consider the Assumptions section of a proof, and is concerned with demonstrating the truth of what is in that Assumptions section. [Critical Thinking, 12]. What critical thinking tries to add back into the logical process, I am adding through the use of a Christian worldview.)

Our shared reality is important, because every proof in formal logic starts with a section of Assumptions, which includes axioms, basic definitions, and rules assumed to be true. These are the basic “inputs” to a logical proof. And these assumptions must match what we know about our shared reality. Else, the resulting proof will be a proof about some other reality, and not the reality that we all live in.

The biblical definition of lying, is misrepresenting our shared reality in some way. “You shall not bear false witness” is based on a fixed, and common shared reality." [Christian Logic, xiii]
----- -----

I am approaching this discussion of Conspiracy Theories,
from the standpoint of a Christian concept of "our shared reality",
and Epistemology.


SOURCES:

When I quote from [Christian Logic, ...] I am quoting from
Christian Logic, Stephen Wuest, 2024, Christian Faith Publishing.

 

[Stephen3141]

There is quite a broad definition of "conspiracy theory" is use in modern
America. For that reason, I am focussing on the reasoning methodology
of conspiracy theorists, and especially the logical dysfunctions of their
methodology in thinking.

Because the logical dysfunctions in methodology in conspiracy theories
is shared by many other sorts of "explanations", I am lumping all these
dysfuntional "explanations" TOGETHER.

If you wrap an unsubstantiated explanation in a "conspiracy" wrapper,
you have a conspiracy theory.
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NOTE:

A substantiated explanation, is NOT an unsubstantiated explanation.

A substantiated conspiracy, is NOT an unsubstantiated conspiracy theory.

 

[Stephen3141]

Although I do not like the "recent" nature of a lot of Wikipedia entries,
some good points are made by the Wikipedia paragraphs on
Conspiracy Theory...

"A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation),[3][4][5] when other explanations are more probable.[3][6][7] The term generally has a negative connotation, implying that the appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence.[8] A conspiracy theory is distinct from a conspiracy; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as scientists or historians.[9][10][11]

Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other;[12] they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them.[13] They are reinforced by circular reasoning: both evidence against the conspiracy and absence of evidence for it are misinterpreted as evidence of its truth.[8][14] Stephan Lewandowsky observes "This interpretation relies on the notion that, the stronger the evidence against a conspiracy, the more the conspirators must want people to believe their version of events."[15] As a consequence, the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven.[1][16] Studies have linked belief in conspiracy theories to distrust of authority and political cynicism.[17][18][19] Some researchers suggest that conspiracist ideation—belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological.[20][21] Such belief is correlated with psychological projection, paranoia, and Machiavellianism.[22][23]"
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Note that this Wikipedia text immediately brings up certain topics:

1 If you do not like "scientists" or "historians", then you will not like the
idea that the consensus of scientists and historians SHOULD BE
SERIOUSLY CONSIDERED BY CHRISTIANS. There is a cutting plane
in Christian theologies, as to whether or not Christians should embrace
the life of the mind, and the epistemology of (hard) scientists and
historians, or whether Christians should adopt some other model of
epistemology.

2 There is the topic of "falsification". In formal logic, a proposition that
CANNOT BE FALSIFIED, also CANNOT BE PROVEN TO BE TRUE is
called "unfalsifiable". It becomes a useless proposition. If a
Christian COULD NOT IMAGINE ANY DATA THAT WOULD PROVE THEIR
BELIEF IS FALSE, then that Christian is holding a logically incoherent
belief. (This is a very different topic, than whether or not the proposition
is TRUE or FALSE.)

3 There is a noted "culture" among those who believe conspiracy theories
(or explanations that are not substantiated). This "culture" (I assert)
could be described as "fallling down the rabbit hole" of unsubstantiated
explanations, or living in an "echo chamber" of like-thinking people on
social media. The further down the rabbit hole a person falls, the less
they are willing to embrace a solid Epistemology, and start to critically
evaluate their beliefs.

 

[Stephen3141]

I assert that it is crucial for Christians to have a very good idea of
what "our shared reality" is. This is because the Bible presents a
picture of reality, in which God holds us morally-ethically responsible
for how we perceive reality, and talk about it.

"Our “shared reality” is the reality that we all (potentially) have access to.

This topic involves the philosophical concepts of what our senses can detect, what evidence is, and how we can describe reality.

Some of the types of reality that we share are:
• physical reality (including time)
• moral/ethical reality
• the reality of valid methods of reasoning
• free will, so that we can choose how we use our mind. “ [Making Bible Study Formal, p. 57]

But there are other types of shared reality, such as:

• abstract concepts
• God
• reasoning about types (including abstract realities) of our shared reality."

[Christian Logic, 73-74]
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Note that (I assert) that Christian theologies that tend to mock at the life of the
mind, DO NOT ACCEPT THAT VALID METHODS OF REASONING, are part of
our shared reality.

What we accept as our shared reality, and how we think we can represent
this reality, is the foundation for the moral-ethical command ...

"You shall not lie."


This is the biblical command that links concepts of what our shared reality
is, with core Christian doctrines.

 

[Stephen3141]

Another paragraph from Wikipedia's page on "Conspiracy Theory" to consider...

"A conspiracy theory is not simply a conspiracy, which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people.[10] In contrast, the term "conspiracy theory" refers to hypothesized conspiracies that have specific characteristics. For example, conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose the mainstream consensus among those people who are qualified to evaluate their accuracy, such as scientists or historians.[11] Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or a stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account.[10] Michael Barkun describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events".[10]

Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems.[63] In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as bureaucracies, can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as the role of chance and unintended consequences. Nearly all observations are explained as having been deliberately planned by the alleged conspirators.[63]"
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Historically, conspiracy theories required a structure of an organized
conspiracy (I do not think that this requirement holds, today).

Today, I think that some beliefs include the ASSERTION that there is some
some of hidden "conspiracy" going on behind the scenes, but (I think) that
it is difficult to tell some modern conspiracy theories from simple personal
biases. It seems to be popular to phrase personal biases, in terms of a
claim of conspiracy theories.

The movie "Crash" deals with what we could call crude personal biases
(racial, social class, caricatures of different groups). But if you look at how
the actors describe what are their personal biases, they often phrase them
as a form of (unproven) vonspiracy theory. and the movie explores how these
personal biases themselves, are often misunderstood.

Amazon.com

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I think that Christians need to be VERY careful with how they test assertions,
and make assertions. Hollywood has given us patterns of conspiracy theories,
that (without thought) may be taken to be justifications of crude personal
biases.

 

[Stephen3141]

Note that crude racism, sexism, political rage, hatred of certain economic classes,
or just the hatred of someone who seems to be more successful than we personally
have been (as WE perceive success), can EASILY be turned into an unproven
conspiracy theory.

In that sense, MODERN CONSPIRACY THEORIES ARE OFTEN AN EXPRESSION OF
PERSONAL RAGE OR DISAPPOINTMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL, that may have nothing
to do with any real conspiracy against the individual.

Unproven conspiracy theories, are EXPLANATIONS that increasingly, are accepted
within some internet bubble chamber or echo chamber among like-feeling people.

It is important for Christians TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN AN EXPLANATION, AND
A PROVEN CAUSE.

*****
As formal logic, at its heart, deals with the careful definition of "logical causality",
formal logic is a healing exercise to test supposed causality, and unveil ridiculous
claims of "causality".

"Aristotle’s “title of Founder of Logic” has never been disputed.” [The Science of Logic, 41]

What has been efficiently forgotten among modern Christians, is that Aristotle was a philosopher. As a philosopher, he was very interested in the nature of reality, the precise meaning of concepts, and what “causality” is. In the modern era, Aristotle’s wider interests, connected to logic, have been de-emphasized, or removed from the calculus of creating a valid proof, and thrown away.

The Christian use of logic has included the structural calculus of the rules of inference, but also, the concern that logic only results in TRUE conclusions, when logic is applied to our shared reality. That is, Christians (historically) have been concerned with arguments/demonstrations/proofs that were both logically valid, AND TRUE.

Is it so surprising that Thomas Aquinas created “prime mover” and “prime cause” arguments, when the core structure of formal logic is “if A then B”? This is a statement of logical causality. (Thomas was interested in synthesizing logic and theology.)

Is is such a mystery that younger generations, who have largely ditched formal logic, cannot objectively evaluate what causes what? Is it really the case, that “Rich white men caused me to screw up my entire life?” Is this the core of causality, in our shared reality? What we see today, is arbitrary blame groups, substituted for the previous and historic explanations of logical causality.

The old Christian joke, which was never was meant to be taken seriously, is:

“Satan made me do it."

The current appeals to arbitrary blame groups, and arbitrary group definitions, are an assertion of arbitrary CAUSALITY that is neither based on formal logic, nor in touch with our shared reality.

To put it bluntly, formal logic is meant to reason about our shared reality. Not about some fantasy projections of what different individuals think “reality” is.

The Bible asserts a lot about what our shared reality is. If a Christian is to properly use logic, then Christians had better start with a biblical definition of what our shared reality, is." [Christian Logic, Wuest, 2024, 216-217]
**********

For Christians, the apologetic horizon has become VERY STRANGE, as the younger generations
(I assert) have largely discarded formal logic, and so have no rigorous foundation to reason
about CAUSALITY.

When our perceived world is cut free of a rigorous definition of how to test and identify real
CAUSALITY, THEN we are easy prey to other fake and untested EXPLANATIONS that may
be very emotionally attractive (and addictive) to us, SUCH AS CONSPIRACY THEORIES.

 

[Stephen3141]

The modern American attraction to conspiracy theories, involves some really
NEGATIVE cultural effects.

From Wikipedia, under "Conspiracy Theories", we have these paragraphs...
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"​

Consequences​

Third Reich Nazi antisemitic propaganda poster entitled Das jüdische Komplott ("The Jewish Conspiracy")
Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice, witch hunts, wars, and genocides.[28][29] They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh, Anders Breivik and Brenton Tarrant, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.[28] AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS,[33][34][35] while belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine,[29]at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from hunger.[39]

Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health.[29][40] People who believe in health-related conspiracy theories are less likely to follow medical advice, and more likely to use alternative medicine instead.[28] Conspiratorial anti-vaccination beliefs, such as conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies, can result in reduced vaccination rates and have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases.[33][29][41][40] Health-related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance to water fluoridation, and contributed to the impact of the Lancet MMR autism fraud.[29][40]

Conspiracy theories are a fundamental component of a wide range of radicalized and extremist groups, where they may play an important role in reinforcing the ideology and psychology of their members as well as further radicalizing their beliefs.[28][43] These conspiracy theories often share common themes, even among groups that would otherwise be fundamentally opposed, such as the antisemitic conspiracy theories found among political extremists on both the far right and far left.[28]More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints.[42] While conspiracy theories are not always present in extremist groups, and do not always lead to violence when they are, they can make the group more extreme, provide an enemy to direct hatred towards, and isolate members from the rest of society. Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies.[43]

Conspiracy theorizing in the workplace can also have economic consequences. For example, it leads to lower job satisfaction and lower commitment, resulting in workers being more likely to leave their jobs.[28] Comparisons have also been made with the effects of workplace rumors, which share some characteristics with conspiracy theories and result in both decreased productivity and increased stress. Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image.[28][93]

Conspiracy theories can divert attention from important social, political, and scientific issues.[94][95] In addition, they have been used to discredit scientific evidence to the general public or in a legal context. Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is.[29]

It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage government transparency.[49][94] However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within the system, such as whistleblowers and journalists, and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected.[43] The most dangerous conspiracy theories are likely to be those that incite violence, scapegoat disadvantaged groups, or spread misinformation about important societal issues.[96]"
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For younger American generations of Christians, they may not know that
their fixation with conspiracy theories (for those who have this fixation), that
conspiracy theiries have been common in history. And, they have been
conected with the most horrendous and abusive regimes that have existed,
in history.

This topic is NOT just a matter of academic models of Epistemology.
Flawed concepts of what truth is, LEADS TO CONSEQUENCES THAT
CAN BE HORRENDOUS.

And, another trend among those who spend a lot of time contemplating
conspiracy theories, is that THEY PROGRESSIVELY IGNORE MORE AND MORE
FACTS, FROM OUR SHARED REALITY. As with the Americans who accept the
(false) explanations of the motivation of the Columbine school shooters, they
reach a point at which the facts of the shooting, do not move them at all.
Nothing, will change their faith in the fake narratives that try to explain
why these 2 high school kids went ballistic at Columbine High School.
At this point, they are living in an alternative, fake reality. And in this
state, they are closer to those who have serious mental illnesses, in which
they disassociate with reality altogether.

 

[com7fy8]

That is something I did not think of > that conspirators are considered to be even *so* extremely clever and competent, that no one sees or even can know of what they are doing, unless the conspiracy theorists tell us.

However, we have God Himself resisting any proud person >

"God resists the proud" (in James 4:6 and 1 Peter 5:5).

And Jesus says,

"without Me you can do nothing" (in John 15:5).

So, in case you are getting nowhere in dealing with some real or imagined conspiracy, this can be because without Jesus not a one of us can get anywhere. And God might not need our help with however He is already resisting any wrong person or group.

Plus, He could be using a conspiracy or a war to resist certain proud people. And He can so resist certain ones, so they get nowhere no matter what they do; and then is when they suppose there is a conspiracy against them . . . when it is really God orchestrating things to resist them in their pride.

But, of course . . . in Satan's kingdom there are conspiracies. So, we do not need to get so aghast that there might be some conspiracy going on in a church group or town or politics or police department.

And a conspiracy can be hiding in plain sight. There is the ongoing conspiracy of Satan's kingdom to keep our attention away from God and depending on Him while submitting to how He rules us in His peace > as it is written >

"And let the peace of God rule in your hearts, to which also you were called in one body; and be thankful." (Colossians 3:15)

Satan's kingdom has a lot of things designed to keep us from being attentive to and submissive to God, all the time. Conspiracy theories are included in Satan's strategy to keep our attention away from God!!

We need, therefore, to reliably evaluate if and how we should give attention to a conspiracy claim.

"Test all things; hold fast what is good." (1 Thessalonians 5:21)

Test if God wants us to use up time and attention on claims of conspiracies. One simple way to test is to simply submit to God and see where He guides us and our attention at each moment.

"No one engaged in warfare entangles himself with the affairs of this life, that he may please him who enlisted him as a soldier." (2 Timothy 2:4)

We can tell we're in trouble, then, if we get tangled up trying to make this world's people answer to us while we are trying to investigate some conspiracy claim.

Stay prayerful, then. Beware of ones trying to control our attention.

And we have how Paul says there need to be two or three witnesses even to every word > 2 Corinthians 13:1.

And in the United States we who are loyal to the Constitution require that an accused person knows who are the person's accusers. Plus, we presume the accused to be innocent until there has been a trial and the jury rules the person innocent or guilty. However, it appears a number of politicians, even, are not loyal to this.

But we can spare ourselves a lot of clutter and tangling and mangling, by obeying God and even such practical constitutional guidelines which can be mostly for our own good.

 

[Ignatius the Kiwi]

Jeffery Epstein didn't kill himself.

 

[Stephen3141]

Com7... I agree with a lot that you say.

The Apostle Paul does tell us to "test all things -- hold onto what is good."

What REALLY UNNERVES me about the conspiracy theory topic, is that many
CHRISTIANS have such a dysfunctional concept of what it is to "test all things",
that their understanding of this command does not include a "decision algorthm"
that defines how this testing is to be done. (So, almost ANYONE can be claiming to
be doing critical analysis, while promoting ideas that HAVE NOT BEEN RIGOROUSLY
examined.)

I see a big overlap between the working "culture" of some North American
Christian groups, and the INABILITY to rigorously test propositions/concepts/theories.

As a result, I assert that some North American Christian congregations
are attracted to the "Christian Nationalism" themes, without having the
critical thinking abilities, to analyze whether or not many of the assumptions
and conclusions of Christian Nationalism, are even compatible with
historical Christian doctrines.

And, a lot of the promoters of conspiracy theories, appeal to the language
of Christianity, while disregarding the rigorous, logical analysis of the
assertions that they are promoting.

 

[Stephen3141]

To get back to Wikipedia, under "Conspiracy Theory" ...

"

Walker's five kinds​

Jesse Walker (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories:[77]

• The "Enemy Outside" refers to theories based on figures alleged to be scheming against a community from without.
• The "Enemy Within" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens.
• The "Enemy Above" involves powerful people manipulating events for their own gain.
• The "Enemy Below" features the lower classes working to overturn the social order.
• The "Benevolent Conspiracies" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people.

Barkun's three types​

Michael Barkun has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory:[78]

• Event conspiracy theories. This refers to limited and well-defined events. Examples may include such conspiracies theories as those concerning the Kennedy assassination, 9/11, and the spread of AIDS.
• Systemic conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. The goals are sweeping, whilst the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of Jews, Freemasons, Communism, or the Catholic Church.
• Superconspiracy theories. For Barkun, such theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically. At the summit is a distant but all-powerful evil force. His cited examples are the ideas of David Icke and Milton William Cooper."

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Note again, that there are substantiated conspiracies (they are not just
"theories").

Note again, that unsubtantiated interpretations of events or situations,
also abound, although they may not be called "conspiracy" theories.

Note that there are common patterns of people who are claimed to be
behind conspiracy theories. (I would, more generally, say that modern
Americans are drawn to the language of "blame groups", and that
Christians should always be aware of rhetoric that imputes that some
blame group is "causing" some outcome.)

Note that the FBI has been warning that "internal" U.S. groups now
present more danger than foreign radical groups. I believe the
assessment of the F.B.I. But, note that it is becoming more common for the
far right and far left political groups, to attribute anything negative to the
OTHER political party, whether or not there is evidence of this causality.

Note that it is common among "identity groups" (for lack of a better term),
to arbitrarily blame any group they don't like, using the language of
conspiracy theories. This arbitrary blame language is common among
all sorts of radical groups (including cults).

 

[Stephen3141]

Some thoughts on "blame groups", as they relate to conspiracy theories...
---------- ----------

"Note that there is a difference between one’s native culture, and the popular definitions of “blame groups” that commonly appear in social media. Some of these blame groups are abstract and arbitrary creations of people who are engaged in rhetoric. And so there is the ongoing problem of the Straw Man argument, when we are considering native cultures." [Christian Logic, 232]

"When we deal with arguments appearing on social media we are often faced with analogies/metaphors that do not match our shared reality, are not relevant to the conclusion being argued, are not authoritative, are merely politically correct, or are based on arbitrary popularity groups or arbitrary blame groups." [Christian Logic, 412]
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Note that there are an uncountably infinite number of analogies and metaphors.
BUT, we need to ask what the AUTHORITY is, that supports of denied the
truth of an analogy or metaphor.

Christians need to be VERY CAREFUL in accepting the goodness of an analogy
or metaphor, as ANY theological position/proposition could be expressed in
some analogy or metaphor, or another.

For a Christian, it is better to stick to topics/truths that the Bible addresses. Christians are free to reason about any topic, but it will be difficult to associate any authority with a Conclusion that is reached using facts/rules that are not addressed by Scripture. (This is why a lot of Origen’s speculative theology is rejected.)

"Sideline:

Origen lived at a time when Christianity was becoming more attractive to the upper classes, and needed a complete intellectual structure to understand the Old Testament. And so Origen produced one, with his metaphorical interpretation of Old Testament events and law.

Origen considered that he was free to speculate about topics which the Bible did not directly address. (Modern biblically illiterate Christians go even further than this!)

Although Origen’s approach to Bible interpretation was popular with the educated, it is an opinion among Bible scholars that Origen went too far, in his speculation.

For Christian apologists, it is better to stick to explaining/defending the topics that the Bible addresses, rather than to make up speculative explanations of the faith." [Christian Logic, (sorry -- I'm looking for the page number in the published hard copy)]

 

[Stephen3141]

When the president brings a known conspiracy theorist into the White
House, it is a sign that the president has real problems with his epistemology.

Of course, those Christians who have been concerned with the disolving
of sound Epistemology among the younger American generations and
have been concerned over the rise of conspiracy theories, could have
predicted this.

Conspiracy theorists are big on "explanations", but are adverse to real
fact-checking.